Agricultural cooperatives and the role of organisational models in new intelligent traceability systems and big data analysis

: Traceability systems are key to assuring food safety, creating a benefit for food supply chain components. Currently, the appearance of new technologies such as IoT and Big Data Analysis leads to a new generation of more functional, but complex, traceability systems. Organisational models based on cooperation of multiple small/medium size agents, for example of small/family farming cooperatives, play an important role in high standard agricultural production and commercialization processes. These function as both social and economic networks, with high social and economic impact in the rural areas. The case of Almeria as an example of this model was used to analyze its cooperative model. The actual traceability systems in the Almeria model were studied, taking account of the different networked agents and their interrelation. This study includes two main parts: a) analysis of the net-chains that constitute the food supply chains and their different relationships, and b) actual traceability. The next step studied how the net-chain model, including many diverse agents, may be applied to develop a new generation of traceability systems based of IoT and Big Data. This implies extending the special and functional scope of the actual systems and defining clear rules of exchange of the results of the Big Data Analysis, taking account of the adequate Privacy Rules. This work analyses the current organisation as a base for a new generation of traceability systems considered in the European project IoF2020 (Internet of the Food and Farm 2020). Some parallels between Almeria’s model and certain areas in China, mainly in the areas of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and Shandong were detected. Another of the objectives of this work is to deepen the understanding of these similarities and analyze the possible adaptation of the results from Almeria to China


Introduction
Designing and implementing effective food traceability systems is a complex process, which requires what Coase [2] called "the institutional structure of production". Most organisations are not based on pure market relationships, but have varying arrangements for control, coordination and incentives; that is, they have varying mechanisms which are efficient for dealing with knowledge based activities, diverse interests which need alignment and situations where information is not perfect. The "business model" of any given organisation refers to how it creates, delivers, and captures value, in economic, social, cultural or other contexts [3] . This paper will consider the role of cooperatives as innovative organisational structures and business models in traceability systems according to the problem of integration of traceability and smart farming [4] . Innovation, with regard to businesses, refers to the "implementation of new or improved organisational methods in the firm's, business practices, human resources, workplace organisation or external relations" [5] .
What is of note here is the mention of not only what happens inside the firm, but also the external relations.
Innovation is not confined to the analysis of single firm and its relations, but also includes populations of firms and their economic and social "ecosystems". Other wider interpretations of innovation point to any change (not just technological), based on knowledge (not just scientific), that generates value (not just for businesses) [6] .
The inherent theme in these approaches to innovation is the process of adaptation and subsequent adoption of products, processes, services, systems, organisations, markets, techniques and business models; in essence, the process by which change is carried out and creates value.
Since innovation does not occur in a vacuum, the field of organisational design looks to the relationship between organisational structures and innovation. Processes of learning and organisational knowledge creation are also important elements.
Organisations with different structures may vary in both learning and knowledge creation, resulting in different innovative capabilities [7] . Among the different models of production, one is based on cooperatives whose members are small/family farmers.
In order to assure an adequate evolution of the current traceability systems to the next generation, it is necessary to take into account their organisational models. We must point out that there are different models of integration of the cooperatives and chain-supply agents that must be considered in order to assure the sustainability of a model that offers a social and economic stability, using as an example the case of Almeria's agricultural cluster.

Enhanced traceability as added value
Enhanced traceability has increasingly become a method by which agricultural producers, businesses and actors add value to their production [8] . It is an integral part of logistics management in which traceability systems include both tracing and tracking of goods, services and related information [9] . cooperatives play a major role in almost all aspects of food production and marketing, enjoying an overall competitive market share of over more than 50% [10] , with some sectors as high as 70%. The cooperative business model can be a means to promote and contribute to organisational innovation, which in turns supports innovative traceability technology and processes. Both technical and organisational innovation go hand in hand as a competitive factor.
A study by the Rural Development Institute [11] also found that cooperatives all over the world provide marketing and traceability supports to their members. Spain, which are responsible for 34% of the value of total agricultural production [12] .

Almeria case
Within Andalucía, we refer to the vegetable production of Almeria, illustrated in Figure  produce worth over 2.622 billion Euros for 2016 [13] . As well, with almost 400 export companies, the supply chain is very dynamic, with many actors and interactions which lead to a complex network of relationships and product movement. Actual governance of these shareholders is mainly by "shared participant-governed networks" using the classification by Proven and Kenis [14] .    Much work has been done on the economics of networks [16][17][18] . Networks can be economic or social or both, as is the case of cooperatives. Cooperatives can be considered a network structure, as they are member owned, member controlled, and for member benefit.
They include market-like mechanisms, such as individual ownership and market incentives, with hierarchy-like instruments (e.g., administrative controls, authority and common staff in a central structure). They are a class of social and economic organisations which are unique and characterised by different coordination, control and incentive mechanisms, i.e., governance structures [19,20] .

Network formation and organisational, effect on traceability
Prior to developing new, more powerful traceability systems based on the new available technologies such as IoT and Big Data, it is necessary to understand how complex systems are interrelated between these technologies and actual traceability systems structures, so as to provide a base for further development through evolution of the existing systems.

Network organisation
Cooperative organisations develop networks, in order to reduce transaction costs, to facilitate knowledge transfer and exchange of resources, and be competitive.
Cooperatives gain significant advantages if they are organized as networks [21] . Research in social networks demonstrated that network forms allowed businesses to acquire knowledge, gain legitimacy, and improve economic performance [22] . Sociologists base network formations on trust, cooperation, and reciprocity.
Another school of transaction cost economists focus on network governance, looking at the combined effects of opportunism and imperfect or limited knowledge. In the transaction cost framework, networks are not considered unique organisational forms, but rather a diverse collection of relationships [23] . Networks are created to adapt to changes in social and economic environments.
Williamson argues that in order to safeguard exchanges, support adaptation, and coordinate transactions, networks rely on "three pillars": pooling of resources (for example joint investments), coordination through contracts, and combinations of competition and cooperation [21,24] .
The criticism of network analysis is that while it can take into account social arrangements and knowledge transfer between firms; it doesn´t pay attention to vertical ties: that is, market relationships-which influence greatly R+D knowledge sharing and transference, creation and adoption of innovation, and, in the subject at hand, traceability systems and technologies. While networks and market analysis is useful, another approach entails the study of "net-chains". Net-chains are a combination of networks and sequential supply chains. Lazzarini et al. [25] define a "net-chain" as a "set of networks comprised of horizontal ties between firms within a particular industry or group, which are sequentially arranged based on vertical ties between firms in different layers." Figure 6 below illustrates the concept of net-chain, along with the types of relationships: pooled, sequential and reciprocal.
The different layers represent the stages of the chain-supply (as shown in Figure 6), the different types of relationships represent how the different agents (as cooperatives, packaging companies, certification bodies, retailers) are interrelated. For example, there is a sequential relation between the producers, the classification and packaging companies ( Figure 6, (1)), the transporter and the retailers. We can find a pooled relationship when some group individual transporters receive the orders of transport and organize optimal routes ( Figure 6, (2)). We have a reciprocal relation between some producers, which have agreement to support them when the demand cannot be fulfilled by just one cooperative ( Figure 6, (3)) (or farmer in a lower level). Lazzarini et al. [25] argue that taking into account these simultaneous relationships results in a more advanced understanding of complex inter-organisational relations, and ultimately, methods of adding value. Agricultural cooperatives play a key role in the formation and coordination of food net-chains [26] . An example can be found in a study of co-opetition in Almeria [15] , in which the vertical and horizontal relationships between a population of 107 agricultural cooperative businesses were examined, finding collaboration on R&D+I, technology creation and transfer, as well as promotion and quality of products.

Net-chains and traceability
In the case of Almeria, it was found that competitive In Almeria, the main drivers for this evolution to a Smart Farming and Big Data for traceability [1] are: Pull factors: a) The requirements of global food security (extreme for developed markets), pulling for the implementation of advanced traceability systems in order to offer better and more complete information, assuring the quality of the products and the sustainability of the production [27,28] .
b) The need to take better, more optimal decisions and improve management control for the whole net-chain, integrating the production system and the whole food supply chain [28,29] .
In the case of Almeria, the management of natural resources such as water and soil and the correct planning of the production is especially relevant.

Push factors:
c) The existence of specific technological developments [27] performed mainly by local tech companies (such as the Almeria based Hispatec, an agri-tech provider with more of 80% of the actual traceability system installations) and the research groups linked to the local Cooperative Bank (Cajamar), the associations of producer organisation (COEXPHAL) and the University of Almeria. All the agents are integrated in a strong industrial cluster or ecosystem linked to the local agriculture [30] .
d) The experience of applying technological solutions during the last 30 years by the farmers, that are already aware of the importance of the technology in a wide sense (management of water, reduction of the use of pesticides, integrated production, quality certification and traceability, use of renewable energy and reduction of the ecological footprint).

Traceability system in Almeria
With macro study by Bosana and Gebresenbet [9] , in Table 1 below, we can see the response of the Almeria cooperative sector. Cooperatives and Association of Cooperatives notify, interpret and aid in traceability compliance for all members, as part of the cooperative services. They also lobby and mediate on behalf of members, using their hierarchical administrative and economic networks.

Safety and Quality
Cooperatives function as systems of learning, with joint efforts to create and refine standardisation and refine a certain body of knowledge. They also implement control systems for origin and quality, reducing fraud. Better coordination of supply chain network, with increased efficiencies. Both vertical chains and horizontal networks.
3.Social and reputational concerns (consumer confidence, health concerns, food crises) Cooperatives can emphasis traceability as an added value and can provide reputational (brand) credibility to individual farmer members. Act as link between producers and consumers, with ability to provide feedback to food producers. Ability to call for safety alerts and reduction in incidences and impacts of alerts as a result of capacity by virtue of knowledge networks and control for detecting weak links.

4.Economic and capital investment/ economies of scale and market power/volatility
Cooperatives function to create economies of scale/increase market power and to reduce risk of individual members both with respect to capital investment, and volatility. Increase access to markets which require certification and traceability standard compliance. More equal and efficient allocation of costs of traceability systems.

5.Technology requirements
Dissemination of scientific data and promotion of new technologies and data management for farmer members. Improved tracking and tracing technologies. Standardization or compatibility of the system-interoperability 6.Environmental sustainability Support implementation of sustainable methods and initiatives by use of network of technicians based on cooperative model.

7.Supply chain management complexity
Increase transparency as cooperatives are already embedded within complex systems. Reduced information asymmetries, costs of inputs, transport, information and data management. Reduces administrative burdens and complexity for smaller actors.

Extension of the model to China
In the case of China, it is possible to find a wide range of production models, from concentrated to highly distributed, including the existence of cooperatives, similar to Almeria, but showing an apparently lesser level of integration (the vertical relations dominating over the horizontal ones). This situation may have similarities to a previous stages noted in the case of Almeria. In this sense, it is possible to point the existence of plans by the administration similar to those pointed in push factor d) [21] . This is the case in some intensive production areas of Beijing and Shandong. From the technological side, China is developing consistently new applications [32,33] , however, it has to deal with main weaknesses such as the application and uptake of these developments and a consistent understanding of the management network that it is extremely diverse.
The example of Almeria could be used as a base study to maintain the co-operation of small agents in a way that supports a harmonic, social and economic development of the rural areas in China. This model of integrated co-operative small producers allows the rural population to reduce the income gap between urban and rural areas [34] . One example was a real-time agro-food authentication and supervision system on a novel code for improving traceability credibility [35] .

Conclusions
Cooperatives play an important role in high standard agricultural production and commercialization processes. This model is exportable to other areas suitable for the integration of small producers in similar net-chains, as it is the case of some areas of China, the study of this translation and adaptation if one of the next objectives in the actual works.